One of the most vital times in the development of the brain (the human body’s most vital organ) is during our adolescent years when we spend the majority of our time in formative education. It is crucial to the development and maturation of our youth that everything necessary is done to maximize the results that they glean from their kindergarten through twelfth grade education. But, this is a very challenging time for many of our youth due to developmental, behavioral, and learning challenges.  

         Within the scientific community there are many areas of research focusing on the goal of improving the mental and cognitive abilities of our young populations whether it be through nutritional, pharmacological, or physical interventions. Historically physical interventions have focused on cardiovascular exercise and its expansive array of benefits to cognitive development and performance, but there is also resistance training that needs to be addressed as well as possible tool as well. After all, there are substantial populations who utilize this higher intensity strategy for their mental well being either in isolation, or in conjunction with aerobic exercise, to maximize their mental state.

   It is believed that the human brain exhibits what is know as plasticity throughout the entire lifecycle and this plasticity allows the central nervous system to learn new skill, consolidate and retrieve memories, to reorganize neuronal networks in response to environmental stimuli and recover after lesions (Ben-Zeev Et. Al 2020). Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been shown to enhance this neuronal plasticity (Quiles et al., 2019; Mckay et al., 2020) and several studies have demonstrated that strength training increases both BDNF and IGF-1 (a hormone vitally important for the proper health and development of the mind and body) (Hess and Smart, 2017; Kelty et al., 2019; Quiles et al., 2019; Mckay et al., 2020). In a systemic review by Herold Et.al it was concluded that resistance training evoked substantial functional brain changes, especially in the frontal lobe which were accompanied by improvements in executive functions (higher level cognitive skills that allow better control of other cognitive abilities and behaviors).

       High intensity functional training (HIFT) is a protocol that combines traditional strength training exercises (squats, pushups, presses, etc) done for 30 second bouts with anaerobic bouts (sprints, jumps, etc) for 30s. This protocol has been shown in studies to require a shorter amount of time for completion and a higher adherence rate (Heinrich Et. Al 2014) which is of great benefit given the dismal participation rate of regular exercise by most school aged children and adults alike Participants from two different middle school participated in a study by Ben-Zeev Et. Al where the control group completed a traditional, aerobic based PE program for 45 minutes or the experimental group that did a HIFT workout (which included a 10 minute warm up, 5 rounds of HIFT routine with 2 minute rest in between each round, and a 5 minute cool down). After completing 3 months of the study there were multiple improvements made in the HIFT group that were significantly greater than in the traditional aerobic PE cohort. Spatial learning, visual pattern separation, and inhibitory control were all improved in the students who undertook the HIFT workouts. 

- Spatial learning is the ability to navigate through space (which is shown to correlate with enhanced neurogenesis in rodents (Lee Et. Al 2012) and was tested using the VMWM which utilizes a VR system enabled us to better mimic real-world navigation, in a manner involving spatial-learning related hippocampal and para-hippocampal cells, such as place cells, grid cells, and head direction cells.

- Pattern separation tested the adolescents’ memories by showing them a series of photos of 128 images for 2s each and then immediately after were shown 192 image photos in which 64 pictures were lured items, 64 repeated, and 64 were foil items) and the students had to identify the images as new, old, or similar. 

- Inhibitory control was measured using the Stroop test which is a timed test of inhibition and set shifting. This is thought to test the cognitive function related to inhibition and executive function. 

At the completion of their study Ben-Zeev Et. al concluded that HIFT training that incorporates strength training exercises greatly improves spatial learning, inhibitory control, and executive functions and should be applied as an intervention for improving academic skills. 

          The degradation of our physical capabilities is an unwanted side affect of aging, but perhaps the most frightful aspects for most is the loss of our mental functionality. The most benign degradation one could hope for is a little forgetfulness or slower decision making capabilities, but on the more frightening end of the spectrum are dementia, Alzheimer’s and other neurological disorders. These are fates that come with the passing of time on the calendar for many Americans and this costs our country dearly from both and emotional and financial aspects. Fortunately, like many negative chronic health outcomes affecting our society, there is very optimistic evidence that exercise is a key to staving off these once thought to be inevitable fates for too large a part of our population.   

   Because of the pervasive negative effects of aging in the brain and these consequences on functioning, there are numerous studies aimed at identifying physical interventions that can slow, stop, or reverse these effects in elderly populations. The SMART study (study of mental and resistance training) by Singh Et. Al had participants complete either progressive training training exercises or seated calisthenic (low intensity control group) 2-3 times per week for a 6 month duration. The findings were quite remarkable at the conclusion of the 6 months and an 18 month follow up. They found that resistance training significantly improved primary outcomes in global cognitive function, and maintained executive and global benefits even 18 months after cessation of the exercise protocol. 

- Global cognitive function (as tested by the Alzheimer’s Disease assessment Scale- cognitive sub scale) declines normally over time in elderly populations as demonstrated in this study because only 27% of the participants doing the low intensity calisthenics protocol maintained their ADAS-cog score after 6 months but in contrast the resistance training group had score maintenance rate of 47%. 

- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 3rd Edition (WAIS-III)  tests for executive function and these scores improved dramatically over 6 and 18 months in the progressive resistance training group (60% improvement).

-  Visual constructive memory score declines were attenuated in the resistance training group versus no slowing of decline in the calisthenics control cohort. 

          When Singh Et. Al concluded their thorough study examining when aspects of cognitive functioning and its response to resistance training they concluded that “the current SMART findings of significantly improved global function, executive function, and verbal/constructive memory in MCI after PRT (progressive resistance training) provide evidence of the utility of this specific exercise modality at high intensity to address cognitive decline in this cohort.”

1) Hess, N. C. L., and Smart, N. A. (2017). Isometric exercise training for managing vascular risk factors in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Front. Aging Neurosci. 9:48. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00048

2) Heinrich, K. M., Spencer, V., Fehl, N., and Poston, W. S. (2012). Mission essential fitness: comparison of functional circuit training to traditional army physical training for active duty military. Mil. Med. 177, 1125–1130. doi: 10.7205/milmed-d-12-00143

3)  Kelty, T. J., Schachtman, T. R., Mao, X., Grigsby, K. B., Childs, T. E., Olver, T. D., et al. (2019). Resistance-exercise training ameliorates LPS-induced cognitive impairment concurrent with molecular signaling changes in the rat dentate gyrus. J. Appl. Physiol. 127, 254–263. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00249.2019

4) Lee, M. C., Okamoto, M., Liu, Y. F., Inoue, K., Matsui, T., Nogami, H., et al. (2012). Voluntary resistance running with short distance enhances spatial memory related to hippocampal BDNF signaling. J. Appl. Physiol. 113, 1260–1266. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00869.2012

5) Mckay, B. R., Nederveen, J. P., Fortino, S. A., Snijders, T., Joanisse, S., Kumbhare, D. A., et al. (2020). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is associated with human muscle satellite cell differentiation in response to muscle damaging exercise. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab.45, 581–590. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0501

6) Quiles, J. M., Klemp, A., Dolan, C., Maharaj, A., Huang, C.-J., Khamoui, A. V., et al. (2019). Impact of resistance training program configuration on the circulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor response. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 45, 667–674. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0419

• 7) Fiatarone Singh, Maria A., MD, Gates, Nicola, PhD, Saigal, Nidhi, MPH, Wilson, Guy C., MS, Meiklejohn, Jacinda, BS, Brodaty, Henry, MBBS, Wen, Wei, PhD, Singh, Nalin, MBBS, Baune, Bernhard T., PhD, Suo, Chao, PhD, Baker, Michael K., PhD, Foroughi, Nasim, PhD, Wang, Yi, PhD, Sachdev, Perminder S., PhD, & Valenzuela, Michael, PhD. (2014). The Study of Mental and Resistance Training (SMART) Study—Resistance Training and/or Cognitive Training in Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Double-Sham Controlled Trial. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15(12), 873–880. 

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